Periodenverschieben Durchschnitt Bedeutung

Definition Schmerz ist ein unangenehmes Gefühl, das dem Gehirn durch sensorische Neuronen vermittelt wird. Das Unbehagen signalisiert die tatsächliche oder mögliche Verletzung des Körpers. Allerdings ist Schmerz mehr als eine Empfindung, oder das körperliche Schmerzbewusstsein beinhaltet auch die Wahrnehmung, die subjektive Interpretation des Unbehagens. Die Wahrnehmung gibt Auskunft über den Standort, die Intensität und etwas über seine Natur. Die verschiedenen bewussten und unbewussten Reaktionen auf Empfindung und Wahrnehmung, einschließlich der emotionalen Reaktion, fügen weitere Definition des Gesamtkonzepts des Schmerzes hinzu. Beschreibung Schmerz entsteht aus einer beliebigen Anzahl von Situationen. Verletzung ist eine Hauptursache, aber Schmerz kann auch aus einer Krankheit entstehen. Es kann ein psychologischer Zustand, wie Depression begleiten, oder kann sogar in Abwesenheit eines erkennbaren Auslösers auftreten. Akuter Schmerz Akute Schmerzen resultieren oft aus Gewebeschädigungen wie Hautverbrennungen oder gebrochenem Knochen. Akute Schmerzen können auch mit Kopfschmerzen oder Muskelkrämpfen assoziiert werden. Diese Art von Schmerzen in der Regel geht weg, wie die Verletzung heilt oder die Ursache des Schmerzes (Stimulus) entfernt wird. Um akuten Schmerz zu verstehen, ist es notwendig, die Nerven, die es unterstützen zu verstehen. Nervenzellen oder Neuronen, führen viele Funktionen im Körper. Obwohl ihre allgemeine Aufgabe, die eine Schnittstelle zwischen dem Gehirn und dem Körper, bleibt konstant, ihre Fähigkeiten sehr unterschiedlich. Bestimmte Arten von Neuronen sind in der Lage, ein Schmerzsignal an das Gehirn zu übertragen. Als Gruppe werden diese schmerzempfindlichen Neuronen als Nozizeptoren bezeichnet und praktisch jede Oberfläche und Organ des Körpers ist mit ihnen verkabelt. Der zentrale Teil dieser Zellen befindet sich in der Wirbelsäule, und sie senden fadenförmige Projektionen auf jeden Teil des Körpers. Die Nociceptoren werden nach dem Stimulus klassifiziert, der sie dazu veranlasst, ein Schmerzsignal zu übertragen. Thermorezeptive Nozizeptoren werden durch Temperaturen, die potenziell Gewebe schädlich sind stimuliert. Mechanorezeptive Nozizeptoren reagieren auf einen Druckreiz, der Verletzungen verursachen kann. Polymodale Nozizeptoren sind die empfindlichsten und können auf Temperatur und Druck reagieren. Polymodale Nozizeptoren reagieren auch auf Chemikalien, die von den Zellen in dem Bereich freigesetzt werden, aus dem die Schmerzen stammen. Nervenzellendigungen oder Rezeptoren sind am vorderen Ende der Schmerzempfindung. Ein Reiz an diesem Teil des Nociceptors entfesselt eine Kaskade von Neurotransmittern (Chemikalien, die Informationen im Nervensystem übertragen) in der Wirbelsäule. Jeder Neurotransmitter hat einen Zweck. Beispielsweise gibt die Substanz P die Schmerzmeldung an Nerven, die zu dem Rückenmark und dem Gehirn führen. Diese Neurotransmitter können auch Nerven stimulieren, die zurück zum Ort der Verletzung führen. Diese Reaktion fordert Zellen im verletzten Bereich auf, Chemikalien freizusetzen, die nicht nur eine Immunantwort auslösen, sondern auch die Intensität und Dauer der Schmerzen beeinflussen. Chronischer Schmerz bezieht sich auf Schmerzen, die nach einer Verletzung heilt, Krebs Schmerzen, Schmerzen im Zusammenhang mit einer anhaltenden oder degenerativen Krankheit und langfristigen Schmerzen aus einer nicht identifizierbaren Ursache besteht. Es wird geschätzt, dass einer von drei Personen in den Vereinigten Staaten chronische Schmerzen irgendwann in ihrem Leben erfahren. Von diesen Menschen sind etwa 50 Millionen entweder teilweise oder vollständig behindert. Chronische Schmerzen können durch die bodyx0027s Antwort auf akuten Schmerzen verursacht werden. In Gegenwart einer fortgesetzten Stimulation von Nozizeptoren treten Veränderungen im Nervensystem auf. Veränderungen auf molekularer Ebene sind dramatisch und können Veränderungen in der genetischen Transkription von Neurotransmittern und Rezeptoren einschließen. Diese Veränderungen können auch in Abwesenheit einer identifizierbaren Ursache eines der frustrierenden Aspekte von chronischen Schmerzen auftreten, dass der Stimulus unbekannt sein kann. Zum Beispiel kann der Stimulus nicht identifiziert werden in so vielen wie 85 von Individuen leiden unteren Rückenschmerzen. Wissenschaftler haben längst ein Verhältnis zwischen Depressionen und chronischen Schmerzen erkannt. Im Jahr 2004, eine Umfrage von Kalifornien Erwachsenen mit schwerer depressiver Störung diagnostiziert ergab, dass mehr als die Hälfte von ihnen auch unter chronischen Schmerzen litt. Andere Arten von anormalen Schmerzen umfassen Allodynie, Hyperalgesie und Phantomschmerzen. Diese Arten von Schmerzen entstehen oft aus einer Schädigung des Nervensystems (neuropathisch). Allodynie bezieht sich auf ein Gefühl von Schmerz als Reaktion auf einen normalerweise harmlosen Reiz. Zum Beispiel, einige Menschen, die Nervenschäden als Folge der viralen Infektion erlitten haben unerträgliche Schmerzen nur aus dem leichten Gewicht ihrer Kleidung gelitten. Hyperalgesie ist etwas im Zusammenhang mit Allodynie, dass die Reaktion auf einen schmerzhaften Reiz extrem ist. In diesem Fall verursacht ein leichter Schmerzreiz, wie ein Nadelstich, eine maximale Schmerzreaktion. Phantomschmerzen treten auf, wenn ein Glied amputiert wird, obwohl ein Individuum an der Extremität fehlen kann, wobei das Nervensystem weiterhin Schmerzen aus dem Bereich wahrnimmt. Ursachen und Symptome Schmerzen sind das häufigste Symptom von Verletzungen und Krankheiten, und Beschreibungen können in der Intensität von einem bloßen Schmerz zu unerträglicher Schmerz reichen. Nociceptoren haben die Fähigkeit, Informationen an das Gehirn zu übermitteln, die die Lage, die Natur und die Intensität der Schmerzen angibt. Zum Beispiel, Schritt auf einem Nagel sendet eine Information-gepackte Nachricht an das Gehirn: der Fuß hat eine Punktion Wunde, die viel Schmerzen erlebt hat. Schmerzempfindung variiert auch abhängig von der Lage der Schmerzen. Die Arten der Reize, die eine Schmerzreaktion auf der Haut verursachen, schließen das Stechen, das Schneiden, das Zerquetschen, das Brennen und das Einfrieren ein. Diese gleichen Reize würden nicht viel von einer Antwort im Darm erzeugen. Darmschmerzen entstehen durch Reize wie Schwellungen, Entzündungen und Dehnungen. Schmerzen werden im Hinblick auf andere Symptome und individuelle Erfahrungen betrachtet. Eine beobachtbare Verletzung, wie ein gebrochener Knochen, kann ein deutlicher Indikator für die Art des Schmerzes sein, den eine Person erleidet. Die Bestimmung der spezifischen Ursache der inneren Schmerzen ist schwieriger. Andere Symptome wie Fieber oder Übelkeit helfen, die Möglichkeiten einzuschränken. In einigen Fällen, wie Rückenschmerzen, eine bestimmte Ursache möglicherweise nicht identifizierbar. Die Diagnose der Krankheit, die einen spezifischen Schmerz verursacht, wird ferner dadurch erschwert, dass Schmerzen auf eine Hautstelle bezogen werden können, die nicht an die Stelle des painx0027s-Ursprungs gebunden zu sein scheint. Beispielsweise können Schmerzen, die von Flüssigkeit entstehen, die sich an der Basis der Lunge ansammelt, auf die Schulter bezogen werden. Da Schmerz eine subjektive Erfahrung ist, kann es sehr schwierig sein, seine genaue Qualität und Intensität mit anderen Menschen zu vermitteln. Es gibt keine diagnostischen Tests, die die Qualität oder die Intensität eines einzelnenx0027s Schmerz bestimmen können. Daher wird eine ärztliche Untersuchung eine Menge Fragen über die Lage der Schmerzen, seine Intensität und seine Natur enthalten. Fragen sind auch auf welche Arten von Dingen erhöhen oder entlasten den Schmerz gerichtet, wie lange es gedauert hat, und ob es irgendwelche Variationen in ihm. Eine Person kann aufgefordert werden, eine Schmerzskala verwenden, um den Schmerz zu beschreiben. Eine solche Skala weist der Schmerzintensität beispielsweise eine Zahl zu, z. B. 0 keine Schmerzen und 10 die schlimmsten Schmerzen, die die Person jemals erfahren hat. Skalen sind für Säuglinge und Kinder modifiziert, um ihr Niveau des Verständnisses unterzubringen. Es gibt viele Medikamente zur Verhinderung oder Behandlung von Schmerzen. Nichtopoide Analgetika. Narkotische Analgetika, antikonvulsive Medikamente und trizyklische Antidepressiva wirken, indem sie die Produktion, Freisetzung oder Aufnahme von Neurotransmittern blockieren. Drogen aus verschiedenen Klassen können kombiniert werden, um bestimmte Arten von Schmerzen zu behandeln. Nonopioid Analgetika gehören gemeinsame Over-the-counter Medikamente wie Aspirin. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) und Ibuprofen (Advil). Diese werden am häufigsten für kleine Schmerzen verwendet, aber es gibt einige verschreibungspflichtige Medikamente in dieser Klasse. Narcotic Analgetika sind nur mit einem doctorx0027s Rezept erhältlich und werden für stärkere Schmerzen, wie Krebs Schmerzen verwendet. Diese Medikamente umfassen Codein, Morphin und Methadon. Neigung zu diesen Schmerzmitteln ist nicht so allgemein wie einmal gedacht. Viele Menschen, die wirklich brauchen diese Medikamente zur Schmerzbekämpfung in der Regel nicht süchtig. Jedoch sollte die Betäubungsmittelnutzung auf Patienten beschränkt sein, die eine kurze Lebensdauer haben (z. B. Menschen mit terminaler Krebserkrankung) oder Patienten, deren Schmerzen nur für kurze Zeit dauern sollen (wie Menschen, die sich von einer Operation erholen). Im August 2004 verabschiedete die Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) neue Richtlinien, um Ärzten zu helfen, Narkotika angemessen vorzuschreiben, ohne Angst zu haben, für die Verschreibung der Medikamente über den Rahmen ihrer medizinischen Praxis verordnet zu werden. DEA versucht, mit Ärzten zu arbeiten, um sicherzustellen, dass diejenigen, die Medikamente erhalten müssen, aber um sicherzustellen, dass Opioide nicht missbraucht werden. Antikonvulsiva, sowie Antidepressiva. Wurden zunächst für die Behandlung von Anfällen und Depressionen entwickelt. Allerdings wurde festgestellt, dass diese Medikamente auch schmerzlindernde Anwendungen haben. Darüber hinaus, da in Fällen von chronischen oder extremen Schmerzen, ist es nicht ungewöhnlich für eine Person zu einem gewissen Grad an Depressionen leiden Antidepressiva können eine Doppelrolle dienen. Häufig verschriebene Antikonvulsiva für Schmerzen gehören Phenytoin, Carbamazepin und Clonazepam. Zu den trizyklischen Antidepressiva gehören Doxepin, Amitriptylin und Imipramin. Unlösbare (unerbittliche) Schmerzen können durch Injektionen direkt in oder nahe dem Nerv, der das Schmerzsignal überträgt, behandelt werden. Diese Wurzelblöcke können auch bei der Bestimmung der Stelle der Schmerzerzeugung nützlich sein. Da die zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen der abnormen Schmerzen aufgedeckt werden, werden andere Schmerzmittel entwickelt. Medikamente sind nicht immer wirksam bei der Kontrolle der Schmerzen. Chirurgische Methoden werden als letztes Mittel eingesetzt, wenn Medikamente und Lokalanästhetika versagen. Das am wenigsten destruktive chirurgische Verfahren beinhaltet das Implantieren einer Vorrichtung, die elektrische Signale aussendet. Diese Signale stören den Nerv und verhindern, dass er die Schmerzmitteilung überträgt. Allerdings kann diese Methode nicht vollständig kontrollieren Schmerzen und wird nicht häufig verwendet. Andere chirurgische Techniken beinhalten Zerstörung oder Trennung der Nerven, aber die Verwendung dieser Technik ist durch Nebenwirkungen, einschließlich unangenehme Taubheit begrenzt. Alternative Behandlung Sowohl physische als auch psychologische Aspekte von Schmerzen können durch alternative Behandlung behandelt werden. Einige der beliebtesten Behandlungsmöglichkeiten sind Akupressur und Akupunktur. Massage, Chiropraktik und Entspannungstechniken wie Yoga. Hypnose und Meditation. Pflanzliche Therapien gewinnen zunehmende Anerkennung als praktikable Optionen zum Beispiel Capsaicin, die Komponente, die Cayennepfeffer würzig macht, wird in Salben verwendet, um die Gelenkschmerzen im Zusammenhang mit Arthritis zu lindern. Kontrast Hydrotherapie kann auch sehr vorteilhaft für die Schmerzlinderung. Lebensstile können geändert werden, um eine gesündere Ernährung und regelmäßige Bewegung. Regelmäßige Bewegung, abgesehen von der Linderung von Stress. Hat sich gezeigt, um Endorphine zu erhöhen, Schmerzmittel natürlich im Körper produziert. Erfolgreiche Schmerzbehandlung ist in hohem Grade abhängig von der erfolgreichen Auflösung der painx0027s Ursache. Akute Schmerzen werden aufhören, wenn eine Verletzung heilt oder wenn ein zugrunde liegendes Problem erfolgreich behandelt wird. Chronische Schmerzen und abnormale Schmerzen sind schwerer zu behandeln, und es kann länger dauern, bis eine erfolgreiche Lösung zu finden. Einige Schmerzen sind unlösbar und erfordern extreme Maßnahmen zur Linderung. Vorbeugung Schmerzen sind in der Regel nur in dem Ausmaß, dass die Ursache der Schmerzen vermeidbar. Zum Beispiel, verbesserte chirurgische Verfahren, wie diejenigen, die durch eine dünne Röhre genannt ein Laparascope, minimieren postoperativen Schmerzen. Anästhesie-Techniken für Operationen auch kontinuierlich zu verbessern. Einige Krankheiten und Verletzungen sind oft unvermeidbar. Allerdings sind Schmerzen von einigen Operationen und anderen medizinischen Verfahren und andauernden Schmerzen durch medikamentöse Behandlungen und alternative Therapien vermeidbar. Zeitschriften x0022Erweiterungen in der Schmerztherapie, neue Schwerpunkte deutlich erleichtern Postoperative Care. x0022 Medizinische Geräte x0026 Chirurgische Technologie Woche 26. September 2004: 260. Finn, Robert. X0022Mehr als die Hälfte der Patienten mit schwerer Depression haben chronische Pain. x0022 Family Practice News 15. Oktober 2004: 38. x0022New Richtlinien für bessere Schmerz Behandlung gesetzt. x0022 Medical Letter auf der CDC x0026 FDA 5. September 2004: 95. Organisationen American Chronische Schmerzen Verband. P. O. Box 850, Rocklin, CA 95677-0850. (916) 632-0922. X2329members. tripodx223CwiddyACPA. htmlx232A. Amerikanische Schmerz-Gesellschaft. 4700 W. Lake Ave. Glenview, IL 60025. (847) 375-4715. Ampainsoc. org. Akuter Schmerz mdash Schmerzen in Reaktion auf Verletzungen oder andere Reize, die beheben, wenn die Verletzung heilt oder der Reiz entfernt wird. Chronische Schmerzen mdash Schmerzen, die über den Begriff einer Verletzung oder schmerzhaften Reiz dauert. Kann auch auf Krebs Schmerzen, Schmerzen von einer chronischen oder degenerativen Krankheit und Schmerzen von einer nicht identifizierten Ursache. Neuron mdash Eine Nervenzelle. Neurotransmitter mdash Chemikalien im Nervensystem, die Informationen von oder zwischen Nervenzellen übertragen. Nociceptor mdash Ein Neuron, das Schmerzen fühlen kann. Empfohlene Schmerzen mdash Schmerzen fühlte sich an einem Ort anders als die Lage des verletzten oder kranken Teil des Körpers. Der erwähnte Schmerz beruht darauf, dass Nervensignale aus verschiedenen Bereichen des Körpers den gleichen Nervenweg führen können, der zum Rückenmark und Gehirn führt. Stimulus mdash Ein Faktor, der eine Reaktion im Nerv hervorrufen kann. Ein Gefühl der Not, des Leidens oder der Qual, verursacht durch Stimulation der spezialisierten Nervenendigungen. Ihr Zweck ist vor allem schützen sie wirkt als Warnung, dass Gewebe beschädigt werden und induziert den Leidenden zu entfernen oder aus der Quelle zurückzuziehen. Die nordamerikanische Krankenpflege-Diagnose-Verbindung hat Schmerz als eine Krankenpflegediagnose angenommen. Definieren sie als ein Staat, in dem eine individuelle Erfahrungen und berichtet schweres Unbehagen oder eine unangenehme Empfindung der Berichterstattung von Schmerzen kann entweder durch direkte verbale Kommunikation oder durch codierte Deskriptoren. Schmerzrezeptoren und Stimuli. Alle Rezeptoren für Schmerzreize sind freie Nervenendigungen von Gruppen von myelinisierten oder unmyelinisierten neuronalen Fasern, die reichlich in den oberflächlichen Schichten der Haut und in bestimmten tieferen Geweben wie dem Periost, Flächen der Gelenke, Arterienwände und dem Falx und Tentorium verteilt sind Der Schädelhöhle. Die Verteilung der Schmerzrezeptoren in der Magen-Darm-Schleimhaut ist anscheinend ähnlich wie in der Haut, so ist die Schleimhaut sehr empfindlich gegenüber Irritationen und anderen schmerzhaften Reizen. Obwohl das Parenchym der Leber und der Alveolen der Lunge fast völlig unempfindlich gegen Schmerzen sind, sind die Leber - und Gallengänge besonders empfindlich, ebenso die Bronchien und Parietalpelura. Einige Schmerzrezeptoren sind selektiv in ihrer Reaktion auf Reize, aber die meisten sind empfindlich für mehr als eine der folgenden Arten von Anregung: (1) mechanische Belastung des Traumas (2) extreme Hitze und Kälte und (3) chemische Substanzen, wie Histamin, Kaliumionen, Säuren, Prostaglandinen, Bradykinin und Acetylcholin. Schmerzrezeptoren, im Gegensatz zu anderen sensorischen Rezeptoren im Körper, nicht anpassen oder weniger empfindlich auf wiederholte Stimulation. Unter bestimmten Bedingungen werden die Rezeptoren über einen bestimmten Zeitraum empfindlicher. Dies erklärt die Tatsache, dass, solange ein traumatischer Reiz persistiert die Person weiterhin bewusst sein wird, dass Schäden an den Geweben auftritt. Der Körper ist in der Lage, Gewebeschäden zu erkennen, weil, wenn Zellen zerstört werden sie die chemische Substanzen, die zuvor erwähnt freizugeben. Diese Substanzen können Schmerzrezeptoren stimulieren oder eine direkte Schädigung der Nervenenden selbst verursachen. Ein Mangel an Sauerstoffversorgung zu den Geweben kann auch Schmerzen hervorrufen, indem es die Freisetzung von Chemikalien aus ischämischem Gewebe verursacht. Muskelkrampf ist eine weitere Ursache von Schmerzen, wahrscheinlich, weil es die indirekte Wirkung von Ischämie und Stimulation von chemosensitiven Schmerzrezeptoren verursacht hat. Übertragung und Anerkennung von Schmerzen. Wenn oberflächliche Schmerzrezeptoren erregt werden, werden die Impulse von diesen Oberflächenrezeptoren zu Synapsen in der grauen Substanz (substantia gelatinosa) der Rückenhorns des Rückenmarks übertragen. Sie reisen dann aufwärts entlang der sensorischen Pfade zum Thalamus, der die wichtigste sensorische Relaisstation des Gehirns ist. Der dorsomediale Kern des Thalamus projiziert auf die präfrontale Kortex des Gehirns. Die bewusste Wahrnehmung von Schmerzen findet vermutlich im Thalamus und in den unteren Zentren statt Die Interpretation der Schmerzqualität ist wahrscheinlich die Rolle der Hirnrinde. Die Wahrnehmung von Schmerzen durch eine Person ist hochkomplex und individualisiert und unterliegt einer Vielzahl von äußeren und inneren Einflüssen. Die Hirnrinde befasst sich mit der Wertschätzung des Schmerzes und seiner Qualität, Lage, Art und Intensität, so dass eine intakte sensorische Kortikalis wesentlich für die Wahrnehmung von Schmerzen ist. Neben den neuronalen Einflüssen, die den sensorischen Einfluss übertragen und modulieren, wird die Wahrnehmung von Schmerzen durch psychologische und kulturelle Reaktionen auf schmerzrelevante Reize beeinflusst. Eine Person kann nicht bewusst sein, der Schmerzen zum Zeitpunkt einer akuten Verletzung oder andere sehr stressige Situation, wenn in einem Zustand der Depression, oder wenn eine emotionale Krise. Kulturelle Einflüsse prägen auch die Wahrnehmung und Reaktion auf schmerzhafte Reize. Die Reaktion auf ähnliche Umstände kann von komplettem Stoizismus zu histrionischem Verhalten reichen. Schmerzkontrolle. Es gibt mehrere Theorien im Zusammenhang mit der physiologischen Kontrolle der Schmerzen, aber keiner wurde vollständig überprüft. Einer der bekanntesten ist, dass der Mellzak und Wand, die Gate-Steuerung Theorie, die vorgeschlagen, dass Schmerzen Impulse in der substantia gelatinosa des Rückenmarks vermittelt wurden mit den dorsalen Hörnern als ldquogatesrdquo, dass der Eintrag der Schmerz-Signale in den zentralen Schmerzen Pfade . Auch würden Schmerzsignale mit taktilen Signalen konkurrieren, wobei die beiden ständig gegeneinander ausbalanciert sind. Da diese Theorie zuerst vorgeschlagen wurde, haben Forscher gezeigt, dass die neuronalen Schaltkreise, die sie vermutet, nicht genau korrekt sind. Dennoch gibt es interne Systeme, die heute bekannt sind, natürlich im Körper zur Kontrolle und Vermittlung von Schmerzen auftreten. Ein solches System, das Opioidsystem, beinhaltet die Produktion von morphinähnlichen Substanzen, die Enkephaline und Endorphine genannt werden. Beide sind natürlich vorkommende Analgetika, die in verschiedenen Teilen des Gehirns und des Rückenmarks gefunden werden, die mit der Schmerzempfindung und der Übertragung von Schmerzsignalen zu tun haben. Signale, die sich aus der Stimulation von Neuronen in der grauen Substanz des Hirnstamms ergeben, reisen nach unten zu den dorsalen Hörnern des Rückenmarks, wo eintretende Schmerzimpulse von der Peripherie enden. Die absteigenden Signale blockieren oder vermindern signifikant die Übertragung von Schmerzsignalen nach oben entlang des Rückenmarks zum Gehirn, wo Schmerzen durch Freisetzen dieser Substanzen wahrgenommen werden. Neben dem Gehirn-Opioidsystem zur Kontrolle der Übertragung von Schmerzimpulsen entlang des Rückenmarks gibt es einen weiteren Mechanismus zur Schmerzbekämpfung. Die Stimulation von großen sensorischen Fasern, die sich von den taktilen Rezeptoren in der Haut erstrecken, kann die Übertragung von Schmerzsignalen von dünneren Nervenfasern unterdrücken. Es ist, als ob die Nervenwege zum Gehirn nur eine Art von Signal gleichzeitig aufnehmen können und wenn zwei Arten von Impulsen gleichzeitig an den dorsalen Hörnern ankommen, hat die taktile Empfindung Vorrang vor der Empfindung des Schmerzes. Die Entdeckung von Endorphinen und die Hemmung der Schmerzübertragung durch taktile Signale hat eine wissenschaftliche Erklärung für die Wirksamkeit solcher Techniken wie Entspannung, Massage, Anwendung von Linimente und Akupunktur bei der Kontrolle von Schmerzen und Unannehmlichkeiten zur Verfügung gestellt. Beurteilung der Schmerzen. Schmerz ist ein subjektives Phänomen, das vorhanden ist, wenn die Person, die es erlebt, sagt, dass es ist. Die Person, die persönliche Unannehmlichkeiten oder Schmerzen berichtet, ist die zuverlässigste Informationsquelle über ihren Standort, ihre Qualität, ihre Intensität, ihren Ausbruch, ihre Auslöser oder ihre erschwerenden Faktoren und ihre Erleichterung. Objektive Anzeichen von Schmerzen können helfen, zu überprüfen, was ein Patient über Schmerzen sagt, aber solche Daten werden nicht verwendet, um zu beweisen oder zu widerlegen, ob es vorhanden ist. Physiologische Anzeichen moderater und oberflächlicher Schmerzen sind Reaktionen des sympathischen Nervensystems. Dazu gehören schnelle, flache oder bewachte Atembewegungen, Blässe, Diaphorese, erhöhte Pulsfrequenz, erhöhter Blutdruck, erweiterte Pupillen und Verspannungen der Skelettmuskulatur. Schmerzen, die schwer oder tief in Körperhöhlen liegen, wirken als Stimulans für parasympathische Neurone und sind durch einen Blutdruckabfall, Pulsverlangsamung, Blässe, Übelkeit und Erbrechen, Schwäche und manchmal auch einen Verlust des Bewusstseins belegt. Behavioral Anzeichen von Schmerzen gehören Schreien, Stöhnen, werfen über im Bett, Schrittmacher auf dem Boden, liegend ruhig, aber angespannt in einer Position, Zeichnung der Knie nach oben in Richtung des Bauches, Reiben der schmerzhafte Teil, und ein gequetschter Gesichtsausdruck oder Grimassieren. Die Person im Schmerz kann auch Schwierigkeiten haben, sich zu konzentrieren und zu erinnern und kann völlig egozentrisch sein und mit dem Schmerz beschäftigt sein. Psychosoziale Aspekte der Toleranz gegenüber Schmerzen und Reaktionen darauf sind weniger leicht identifizierbar und komplexer als physiologische Reaktionen. Ein Individuum Reaktion auf Schmerzen unterliegt einer Vielzahl von psychologischen und kulturellen Einflüssen. Dazu gehören frühere Erfahrungen mit Schmerzen, Ausbildung in Bezug darauf, wie man auf Schmerzen und Unwohlsein, Zustand der Gesundheit und das Vorhandensein von Müdigkeit oder körperliche Schwäche reagieren sollte. Einer Grad der Aufmerksamkeit und Ablenkung von schmerzhaften Reizen können auch Auswirkungen auf die Wahrnehmung der Intensität der Schmerzen. Eine gründliche Beurteilung des Schmerzes berücksichtigt alle diese psychosozialen Faktoren. Management von Schmerzen. Unter den Maßnahmen zur Linderung von Schmerzen ist die Verabreichung von Analgetika wahrscheinlich diejenige, die am häufigsten missverstanden und missbraucht wird. Wenn ein schmerzlinderndes Medikament ldquoas geordert worden ist, rdquo der Patient sollte wissen, dass das Medikament wirklich verfügbar ist, wenn nötig, und dass es wird prompt gegeben werden, wenn gefragt. Wenn der Patient gezwungen wird zu warten, bis sich ein anderer entscheidet, wann ein Analgetikum benötigt wird, kann der Patient wütend, ärgerlich und angespannt werden, wodurch die gewünschte Wirkung des Medikaments verringert oder vollständig negiert wird. Studien haben gezeigt, dass, wenn Schmerzmittel am Krankenbett von Patienten mit terminaler Krebserkrankung nach eigenem Ermessen liegen, weniger Dosen eingenommen werden, als wenn sie sich auf eine andere Person verlassen müssen, um das Medikament zur Verfügung zu stellen. Habituation und Sucht auf Analgetika wahrscheinlich so viel von nicht mit anderen Maßnahmen zusammen mit Analgetika für die Schmerzbekämpfung als von vorgeschriebenen Analgetika, wenn sie bestellt werden. Patientenkontrollierte Analgesie wurde sicher und effektiv eingesetzt. Wenn Analgetika nicht angemessen oder ausreichend sind oder wenn es eine wirkliche Suchtgefahr gibt, gibt es nicht-invasive Techniken, die als Alternativen oder Ergänzungen zur schmerzlindernden Therapie eingesetzt werden können. Die Auswahl einer bestimmten Technik für die Behandlung von Schmerzen hängt von der Ursache des Schmerzes, seiner Intensität und Dauer ab, sei es akut oder chronisch, und ob der Patient die Technik als wirksam empfindet. Distraktion Techniken bieten eine Art von sensorischen Abschirmung, um die Person weniger bewusst Unbehagen. Die Ablenkung kann bei der Linderung von kurzzeitigen akuten Schmerzen wirksam sein, wie sie bei kleineren chirurgischen Eingriffen unter Lokalanästhesie, Wunddeaconebrügigkeit und Venenpunktion auftreten. Massage und sanfter Druck aktivieren die dicken Faser-Impulse und produzieren ein Übergewicht der taktilen Signale, um mit Schmerz-Signale konkurrieren. Es ist interessant, dass die Stimulation der großen sensorischen Fasern, die von oberflächlichen sensorischen Rezeptoren in der Haut führen, Schmerzen an einem Ort, der von dem Bereich entfernt ist, der gerieben oder anderweitig stimuliert wird, lindern kann. Da Ischämie und Muskelspasmen können sowohl Beschwerden, Massage zur Verbesserung der Durchblutung und häufige Neupositionierung des Körpers und Gliedmaßen zur Vermeidung von Kreislaufstillung und Förderung der Muskelentspannung können wirksam bei der Prävention und Behandlung von Schmerzen. Transkutane elektrische Nervenstimulation (TENS) Einheiten verbessern die Produktion von Endorphinen und Enkephalinen und können auch Schmerzen lindern. Spezifische Entspannungstechniken können helfen, körperliche und geistige Spannung und Stress abzubauen und Schmerzen zu reduzieren. Sie wurden besonders wirksam bei der Linderung von Unannehmlichkeiten während der Arbeit und Lieferung, sondern können in einer Vielzahl von Situationen verwendet werden. Lernen richtige Entspannungstechniken ist nicht leicht für einige Leute, aber sobald diese Techniken gemeistert worden sind, können sie von großem Nutzen in der Verwaltung von chronischen andauernden Schmerzen sein. Die Intensität der Schmerzen kann auch durch die Stimulation der Haut durch Anwendungen von entweder Hitze oder Kälte, Menthol Salben und Einreibemittel reduziert werden. Kontralaterale Stimulation umfasst die Stimulation der Haut in einem Bereich auf der Seite gegenüber einer schmerzhaften Region. Stimulation kann durch Reiben, Massieren oder Anwendung von Hitze oder Kälte erfolgen. Da Schmerzen ein Symptom und daher von Wert in der Diagnose ist, ist es wichtig, genaue Aufzeichnungen über die Beobachtungen des Patienten mit Schmerzen zu halten. Diese Beobachtungen sollten folgendes enthalten: die Beschaffenheit der Schmerzen, das heißt, ob sie vom Patienten als scharf, stumpf, brennen, schmerzhaft beschrieben wird, etc. die Lage der Schmerzen, wenn der Patient in der Lage ist, dies zu bestimmen Zeitpunkt des Einsetzens und der Dauer, und ob bestimmte Pflegemaßnahmen und Medikamente bei der Erlangung einer Erleichterung und der Beziehung zu anderen Umständen, wie der Position des Patienten, dem Auftreten vor oder nach dem Essen und den Reizen in der Umgebung wie Hitze erfolgreich sind oder nicht Oder Kälte, die den Beginn der Schmerzen auslösen können. Chirurgische Verfahren zur Linderung der Schmerzen. Aus Ignatavicius et al. 1999. 1. eine der drei Kategorien von Schmerzen, die von der Internationalen Vereinigung für das Studium der Schmerzen, die Schmerzen, die durch Vorkommnisse wie traumatische Verletzungen, chirurgische Eingriffe oder medizinische Erkrankungen verursacht wird, sind oft erhöhte Herzfrequenz, Blutdruck , Atemfrequenz, flache Atmung, Erregung oder Unruhe, Gesichtsraspel oder Schienung. 2. eine von der nordamerikanischen Krankenpflegediagnostik akzeptierte Pflegediagnose, definiert als eine unangenehme sensorische und emotionale Erfahrung, die sich aus einer tatsächlichen oder potentiellen Gewebeschädigung oder einer derartigen Beschädigung ergibt, mit plötzlichem oder langsamen Beginn jeder Intensität von mild bis schwer Ein voraussichtliches oder vorhersehbares Ende und eine Dauer von weniger als 6 Monaten. Die während der zweiten Phase der Arbeit uterine Kontraktionen begleiten. Krebs Schmerzen eine der drei Kategorien von Schmerzen, die von der International Association für das Studium der Schmerzen, die Schmerzen mit Malignitäten assoziiert und wahrgenommen von den einzelnen Patienten gibt es verschiedene Skalen Ranking von 0 bis 10 nach dem Niveau der Schwere. 1. Eine der drei Kategorien von Schmerzen, die von der Internationalen Vereinigung für das Studium der Schmerzen, die Schmerzen, die persistent ist, oft dauert mehr als sechs Monate klinischen Symptome können die gleichen sein wie für akute Schmerzen oder gibt es keine Symptome offensichtlich . Die nordamerikanische Krankenpflege-Diagnose-Vereinigung hat chronische Schmerzen als Pflege-Diagnose akzeptiert. 2. eine von der nordamerikanischen Krankenpflegediagnostik akzeptierte Pflegediagnose, definiert als eine unangenehme sensorische und emotionale Erfahrung, die sich aus einer tatsächlichen oder potentiellen Gewebeschädigung oder einer derartigen Beschädigung ergibt, mit einem plötzlichen oder langsamen Beginn jeder Intensität von mild bis schwer, Ohne voraussichtliches oder vorhersehbares Ende und mit einer Dauer von mehr als 6 Monaten. Schmerz-Störung eine somatoforme Störung charakterisiert durch eine Hauptbeschwerde von schweren chronischen Schmerzen, die erhebliche Beeinträchtigung oder Beeinträchtigung bei der Funktionsweise der Schmerzen verursacht, ist weder vorgetäuscht noch absichtlich produziert, und psychologische Faktoren scheinen eine wichtige Rolle bei ihrem Auftreten, ihrer Schwere, Exazerbation oder Erhaltung zu spielen . Der Schmerz bezieht sich auf psychische Konflikte und wird durch Umweltbelastungen verschlimmert, so dass der Patient eine unangenehme Aktivität vermeiden oder Unterstützung und Sympathie erhalten kann. Patienten können viele Gesundheitspflegeversorger auf der Suche nach Erleichterung besuchen und können übermäßige Mengen von Analgetika ohne irgendeine Wirkung verbrauchen. Sie sind schwer zu behandeln, weil sie stark widerstehen die Vorstellung, dass ihre Symptome haben einen psychologischen Ursprung. Falsche ps ineffektive Schmerzen während der Schwangerschaft, die Arbeitsschmerzen ähneln, nicht begleitet von zervikaler Dilatation siehe auch Braxton-Schmerzen Kontraktionen. Genannt auch falsche Arbeit. Wachsende ps alle Arten von rezidivierenden Gliedmaßen Schmerzen ähnelt denen der rheumatoiden Bedingungen, in der frühen Jugend gesehen und früher dachte, dass durch den wachsenden Prozess verursacht werden. Hunger Schmerz Schmerzen auf zu der Zeit für das Gefühl Hunger nach einer Mahlzeit ein Symptom der Magen-Störung. Intermenstruellen Schmerzen Schmerzen begleiten den Eisprung, die während der Zeit zwischen den Menses, in der Regel etwa in der Mitte. Ps die rhythmischen Schmerzen mit zunehmender Schwere und Häufigkeit durch Kontraktion der Gebärmutter bei der Geburt siehe auch Arbeit. Lancinating Schmerzen scharfe pfeilende Schmerzen. Phantomschmerzen fühlten sich an, als wären sie in einem abwesenden oder amputierten Glied oder Organ vorhanden, siehe auch Amputation. Psychogene Schmerzen Symptome von körperlichen Schmerzen mit psychologischen Ursprung sehen Schmerzstörung. Schmerzen in einem anderen Teil als dem, in dem die Ursache, die es produziert liegt. Schmerzen in der Regel entsteht in einem der viszeralen Organe, sondern ist in der Haut oder manchmal in einem anderen Bereich tief im Inneren des Körpers zu spüren. Der vermutete Schmerz tritt wahrscheinlich auf, weil Schmerzsignale von den Eingeweiden entlang der gleichen neuronalen Wege verlaufen, die von Schmerzsignalen von der Haut verwendet werden. Die Person wahrnimmt den Schmerz, aber interpretiert sie als in der Haut entstanden, anstatt in einem tief sitzenden viszeralen Organ. Bereich der genannten Schmerzen, anterior und posterior Ansichten. Rest Schmerzen eine kontinuierliche unerbittliche Schmerzen durch Ischämie des Unterschenkels, beginnend mit oder durch Erhöhung verschärft und wird durch Sitzen mit Beinen in einer abhängigen Position oder durch Stehen erleichtert. Wurzelschmerzen, die durch Erkrankungen der sensorischen Nervenwurzeln verursacht werden und in den von den betroffenen Wurzeln gelieferten Hautgebieten auftreten. 1. Eine unterschiedlich unangenehme Empfindung, die mit einer tatsächlichen oder potentiellen Gewebeschädigung einhergeht und durch spezifische Nervenfasern an das Gehirn vermittelt wird, wo seine bewusste Wahrnehmung durch verschiedene Faktoren modifiziert werden kann. 2. Begriff verwendet, um eine schmerzhafte Gebärmutter Kontraktion auftreten, die bei der Geburt. L. poena, eine Geldstrafe, eine Strafe (px0101n) ein Gefühl von Not, Leiden oder Qual, verursacht durch Stimulation der spezialisierten Nervenenden. Die während der zweiten Phase der Arbeit uterine Kontraktionen begleiten. Falsche Schmerzen ineffektive Schmerzen ähneln Arbeitsschmerzen, nicht begleitet von zervikalen Dilatation. Wachsende Schmerzen wiederkehrende quasirheumatische Gliedmaßen Schmerzen eigener zu frühen Jugend. Hunger Schmerz Schmerzen auf zu der Zeit für das Gefühl Hunger nach einer Mahlzeit ein Symptom der Magen-Störung. Intermenstruellen Schmerzen Schmerzen begleiten den Eisprung, die während der Zeit zwischen den Menses, in der Regel etwa in der Mitte. Die rhythmischen Schmerzen der zunehmenden Schwere und Häufigkeit durch Kontraktion der Gebärmutter bei der Geburt. phantom limb pain pain felt as though arising in an absent (amputated) limb. psychogenic pain symptoms of physical pain having psychological origin. referred pain pain felt in a part other than that in which the cause that produced it is situated. rest pain a continuous burning pain due to ischemia of the lower leg, which begins or is aggravated after reclining and is relieved by sitting or standing. 1. An unpleasant feeling occurring as a result of injury or disease, usually localized in some part of the body. 2. Mental or emotional suffering distress. 3. One of the uterine contractions occurring in childbirth. Etymology: L, poena, punishment an unpleasant sensation caused by noxious stimulation of the sensory nerve endings. It is a subjective feeling and an individual response to the cause. Pain is a cardinal symptom of inflammation and is valuable in the diagnosis of many disorders and conditions. It may be mild or severe, chronic or acute, lancinating, burning, dull or sharp, precisely or poorly localized, or referred. Experiencing pain is influenced by physical, mental, biochemical, psychological, physiological, social, cultural, and emotional factors. See also acute pain, chronic pain, referred pain. Neurology An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage-per Intl Assn for Study of Pain a sensation of discomfort, distress, or agony, due to stimulation of specialized nerve endings a sensation of marked discomfort, either sharp and well-localizedndashconducted along A-delta fibers or dull and diffusendashconducted along C nerve fibers. See Acute pain. Acute low back pain. Ankle pain, Back pain. Breakthrough pain. Brief Pain Inventory. Central stroke pain, Chest pain. Chest wall pain. Chronic pain, Discogenic pain. Elbow pain, Gait control theory, Growing pain, Intractable pain. Knee pain, Lightning pain, Low back pain. Noncardiac chest pain, Patient controlled analgesia, Phantom limb pain, Substantial pain. Suprapubic pain. An unpleasant sensation associated with actual or potential tissue damage, and mediated by specific nerve fibers to the brain, where its conscious appreciation may be modified by various factors. L. poena, a fine, a penalty (pan) Fr. peine . fr L. poena . a fine, a penalty, punishment As defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain, an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience arising from actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage. Pain includes not only the perception of an uncomfortable stimulus but also the response to that perception. About half of those who seek medical help do so because of the primary complaint of pain. Acute pain occurs with an injury or illness is often accompanied by anxiety, diaphoresis, nausea, and vital sign changes such as tachycardia or hypertension and should end after the noxious stimulus is removed or any organ damage heals. Chronic or persistent pain is discomfort that lasts beyond the normal healing period. Pain may arise in nearly any organ system and may have different characteristics in each. Musculoskeletal pain often is exacerbated by movement and may be accompanied by joint swelling or muscle spasm. Myofascial pain is marked by trigger-point tenderness. Visceral pain often is diffuse or vaguely localized, whereas pain from the lining of body cavities often is localized precisely, very intense, and exquisitely sensitive to palpation or movement. Neuropathic (nerve) pain usually stings or burns, or may be described as numbness, tingling, or shooting sensations. Colicky pain fluctuates in intensity from severe to mild, and usually occurs in waves. Referred pain results when an injury or disease occurs in one body part but is felt in another. Several factors influence the experience of pain. Among these are the nature of the injury or illness causing the symptom, the physical and emotional health of the patient, the acuity or chronicity of the symptom, the social milieu andor cultural upbringing of the patient, neurochemistry, memory, personality, and other features. See: table Many clinicians use the mnemonic COLDER to aid the diagnosis of painful diseases. They will ask the patient to describe the C haracter, O nset, L ocation, and D uration of their painful symptoms, as well as the features that E xacerbate or R elieve it. For example: The pain of pleurisy typically is sharp in character, acute in onset, located along the chest wall, and long-lasting it is worsened by deep breathing or coughing and relieved by analgesics or holding still. By contrast, the pain of myocardial ischemia usually is dull or heavy, gradual in onset, and located substernally. It may be worsened by activity (but not by taking a breath or coughing) and relieved by nitroglycerin. In 2000, the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) issued pain-management standards, in 2001 began surveying for compliance, and in 2004 added patient-safety goals, thus most U. S. health care facilities have devised policies and procedures that require pain-intensity rating as a routine part of care (the fifth vital sign). Pain intensity usually is assessed on a numerical scale, in which 0 no pain, 1 to 3 mild pain, 4 to 6 moderate pain, and 7 to 10 severe pain. However, obtaining a numerical rating of pain intensity is possible only if the patient is able to provide this report of the pain being experienced, which infants, children, the critically ill, and cognitively impaired usually are unable to do. The Wong Baker FACES scale, developed for pediatric use, has been used successfully in other patient populations. It uses visual representations of smiles or grimaces to depict the level of pain a patient feels. Patient care Health care professionals must be aware that pain in non-verbal patient can easily be overlooked and must make a conscious effort to ensure that pain in these patients is assessed and treated. Observing subtle behaviors and being sensitive to contextual clues are two pain methods used by health care professionals to try to determine when nonverbal patients are in pain. When this judgment is made, a trial of pain-relieving medication may be used. The responses of the patient and any complications of treatment should be carefully observed and appropriate changes made in dosing or the type of analgesic drug as indicated. Because pain is a subjective and intensely personal problem, sympathetic care is an important part of its relief. In addition to administering analgesic drugs, health care professionals should use a wide range of techniques to help alleviate pain, including local application of cold and heat, tactile stimulation, relaxation techniques, diversion, and active listening, among others. acute pain Pain that typically is produced by sudden injury (e. g. fracture) or illness (e. g. acute infection) and is accompanied by physical signs such as increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, pupillary dilation, sweating, or hyperventilation. Acute pain is typically sharp in character. It is relayed to the central nervous system rapidly by A delta nerve fibers. Then, at the end of this entry please add the SYN: fast pain Depending on the severity of the underlying stimulus, acute pain may be managed with acetaminophen or anti-inflammatory drugs, immobilization and elevation of the injured body part, or the topical application of heat or ice. Severe acute pain, such as that of broken ribs or of an ischemic part, may require narcotics, often with adjunctive agents like hydroxyzine for relief, or antiemetics. Acute pain should be managed aggressively. Synonym: fast pain adnexal pain Discomfort arising from the fallopian tubes and ovaries usually due to inflammation, infection, or ectopic pregnancy. Pain felt in or along the spine or musculature of the posterior thorax. It is usually characterized by dull, continuous pain and tenderness in the muscles or their attachments in the lower lumbar, lumbosacral, or sacroiliac regions. Back pain is often referred to the leg or legs, following the distribution of the sciatic nerve. Common causes of back pain include pain caused by muscular or tendon strain, herniated intervertebral disk, lumbar spinal stenosis, or spondylolisthesis. Patients with a history of cancer may have back pain caused by metastatic tumors to the vertebrae and should be evaluated to be certain that damage to the spinal cord is not imminent. Patients with back pain and fever (esp. those with a history of injection drug use, tuberculosis, or recent back surgery) should be evaluated for epidural abscess or osteomyelitis. Depending on the underlying cause of the back pain, treatment may include drugs, rest, massage, physical therapy, chiropractic, stretching exercises, injection therapy, and surgery, among others. Most nonmalignant causes of back pain improve with a few days of rest, analgesics, and antiinflammatory drugs, followed by 2 to 4 weeks of anti-inflammatory treatment, appropriate muscle strengthening, and patience. Pain caused by an osteoporotic fracture may prove more debilitating and longer-lasting. Back pain produced by a spinal metastasis can improve with corticosteroids, radiation therapy, intravenous bisphosphonates, andor surgical decompression. Patients with a spinal epidural abscess will need surgical drainage of the infection and antibiotics. Patient care Prolonged bedrest is inadvisable in most patients with back pain. The treatment regimen is explained, implemented, and reinforced. Factors that precipitate symptoms are identified and preventive actions are discussed. bearing-down pains Rectal pressure and discomfort occurring during the second stage of labor, related to fetal descent and the womans straining efforts to expel the fetus. boring pain Piercing, used to describe pain felt deep within the body. breakthrough pain Transient episodes of pain that occur in patients with chronic pain that has been previously reduced to tolerable levels. Breakthrough pain disrupts the well-being of cancer or hospice patients who have been prescribed regular doses of narcotic analgesics. The painful episodes may occur as a previous dose of pain-relieving medication wears off (end-of-dose pain), or after unusual or unanticipated body movements (incident pain). Brodie pain Pain caused near a joint affected with neuralgia when the skin is folded near it. burning pain Pain experienced in heat burns, superficial skin lesions, herpes zoster, and circumscribed neuralgias. causalgic pain central pain Pain due to a lesion in the central nervous system. chest pain Discomfort felt in the upper abdomen, thorax, neck, or shoulders. Chest pain is one of the most common potentially serious complaints offered by patients in emergency departments, hospitals, outpatient settings, and physicians offices. A broad array of diseases and conditions may cause it, including (but not limited to) angina pectoris or myocardial infarction anxiety and hyperventilation aortic dissection costochondritis or injured ribs cough, pneumonia, pleurisy, pneumothorax, or pulmonary emboli esophageal diseases, such as reflux or esophagitis gastritis, duodenitis, or peptic ulcer and stones in the biliary tree. chronic idiopathic pelvic pain Unexplained pelvic pain in a woman that has lasted 6 months or longer. A complete medical, social, and sexual history must be obtained. In an experimental study, women with this illness reported more sexual partners, significantly more spontaneous abortions, and previous nongynecological surgery. These women were more likely to have experienced previous significant psychosexual trauma. The pain associated with CIPP should be treated symptomatically and sympathetically. The participation of pain management specialists, complementary medical providers, and the primary health care provider should be integrated. Realistic goals (e. g. the reduction of pain rather than its elimination) should be set. Medroxyprogesterone acetate, oral contraceptives, presacral neurectomy, hypnosis, and hysterectomy have been tried with varying degrees of success. chronic pain 1. Long-lasting discomfort, with episodic exacerbations, that may be felt in the back, one or more joints, the pelvis, or other parts of the body. 2. Pain that lasts more than 36 months. 3. Pain that lasts more than a month longer than the usual or expected course of an illness. 4. Pain that returns periodically every few weeks or months for many years. Chronic pain is often described by sufferers as being debilitating, intolerable, disabling, or alienating and may occur without an easily identifiable cause. Studies have shown a high correlation between chronic pain and depression or dysphoria, but it is unclear whether the psychological aspects of chronic pain precede or develop as a result of a persons subjective suffering. Chronic pain is the leading cause of disability in the U. S.acute pain Patient care The management of chronic, nonmalignant pain is often difficult and may be frustrating for both sufferer and caregiver. The best results are usually obtained through multimodal therapy that combines sympathetic guidance that encourages patients to recover functional abilities, by combinations of drugs (e. g. nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories, narcotic analgesics, andor antidepressants), physical therapy and regular exercise, occupational therapy, physiatry, psychological or social counseling, and alternative medical therapies (e. g. acupuncture, massage, or relaxation techniques). Placebos, although rarely employed clinically, effectively treat chronic pain in about a third of all patients. Surgery and other invasive strategies are occasionally employed, with variable effectiveness. cramplike pain dental pain Pain in the oral area, which, in general, may be of two origins. Soft tissue pain may be acute or chronic, and a burning pain is due to surface lesions and usually can be discretely localized pulpal pain or tooth pain varies according to whether it is acute or chronic, but it is often difficult to localize. dilating pain Discomfort accompanying rhythmic uterine contractions during the first stage of labor. diskogenic pain Low back pain resulting from degeneration of an intervertebral disk. Discogenic pain differs from neuropathic pain in that it does not radiate into the extremities or torso. A mild discomfort, often difficult to describe, that may be associated with some musculoskeletal injuries or some diseases of the visceral organs. eccentric pain Pain occurring in peripheral structures owing to a lesion involving the posterior roots of the spinal nerves. epigastric pain Pain located between the xiphoid process and the umbilicus. It may suggest a problem in one of many different organs, including the stomach, pancreas, gallbladder, small or large bowel, pleura, or heart. expulsive pains Discomfort during the second stage of labor, associated with bearing-down efforts to expel the fetus. Women may experience a similar pain during delivery of the placenta. false pain Abdominal discomfort associated with Braxton Hicks contractions, which occur during the last trimester of pregnancy. Characteristically, the woman complains of irregular, lower abdominal pains, which are relieved by walking. Vaginal examination shows no change in cervical effacement or dilation. fulgurant pain gallbladder pain Pain in the intestines caused by an accumulation of gas therein. gastralgic pain girdle pain growing pains An imprecise term indicating ill-defined pain, usually in the shin or other areas of the legs, typically occurring after bedtime in children age 5 to 12. There is no evidence that the pain is related to rapid growth or to emotional problems. If these symptoms occur during the daytime, are accompanied by other symptoms, or become progressively more severe, evaluation for infection, cancer, and other diseases of muscle and bone should be undertaken. In the majority of cases, this evaluation is not necessary. The child should be reassured and given acetaminophen or ibuprofen heat and massage can be applied locally. Children with growing pains benefit from concern and reassurance from their parents and health care providers. heterotopic pain homotopic pain Pain felt at the point of injury. hunger pain Pain in the epigastrum that occurs before meals. incident pain Pain due to a sudden, forceful, unanticipated, or unusual body movement or posture. inflammatory pain Pain in the presence of inflammation that is increased by pressure. intermenstrual pain Episodic, localized pelvic discomfort that occurs between menstrual periods, possibly accompanying ovulation. intractable pain Chronic pain that is difficult or impossible to manage with standard interventions. Common causes include metastatic cancer, chronic pancreatitis, radiculopathy, spinal cord transection, or peripheral neuropathy. Intractable pain may also accompany somatoform disorders, depression, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and opiate dependence. Various combinations of the following management strategies are often used to treat intractable pain: antidepressant medications, counseling, deep brain stimulation, injected anesthetics, narcotic analgesics, neurological surgery, and pain clinic consultations. labor pains Uncomfortable, intermittent, rhythmic, girdling sensations associated with uterine contractions during childbearing. The frequency, duration, and intensity of the events increase, climaxing with the delivery of the fetus. lancinating pain lightning pain A sudden brief pain that may be repetitive, usually in the legs but may be at any location. It is associated with tabes dorsalis and other neurological disorders. Synonym: fulgurant pain lingual pain Pain in the tongue that may be due to local lesions, glossitis, fissures, or pernicious anemia. Synonym: tongue pain Sharp pain in the region of the lungs. menstrual pain mental pain Periumbilical and R lower abdomen NOTE: L left R right. An unpleasant or distressing localized sensation caused by stimulation of certain sensory nerve endings called nociceptors, or by strong stimulation of other sensory nerves. Nociceptors are stimulated by the chemical action of substances, such as prostaglandins, released from local cell damaged by injury or inflammation. Whatever the site of nerve stimulation, pain is usually experienced in the region of the nerve endings. Referred pain is pain experienced at a site other than that at which the causal factor is operating. Pain impulses pass to the brain via a series of control x2018gatesx2019 analogous to those in computers and these can be modulated by other nerve impulses. Pain commonly serves as a warning of bodily danger and leads to action to end it. Pain is best treated by discovering and removing the cause. It is a complex phenomenon with many components-somatic, emotional, cognitive and social. The management of acute, self-limiting pain is not the same as long-term pain. The latter requires treatment by a multidisciplinary team in a pain clinic. ANALGESIC drugs can be used to target specific receptors and should not be withheld until pain is severe but given repeatedly in expectation of pain. Pain may be relieved by drugs self-administered on an as-required basis by electrical stimulation of the skin ACUPUNCTURE massage cold sprays LOCAL ANAESTHETIC injections or even, in extreme cases and rarely, by permanent nerve destruction by alcohol injection or by surgical severance. From the Latin poena, punishment. See also ENDORPHINS. an unpleasant, conscious sensation produced in the brain and stimulated by pain receptors in, for example, the skin. Pain has a protective function and often produces a reflex action (see REFLEX ARC in response. the name that we give to the unpleasant and disturbing subjective experience that results from injury or other damage. Sensory receptors involved are known as nociceptors (from the adj noxious meaning harmful) thence afferent nerve impulses reach the central nervous system (CNS), where different influences can diminish or enhance them, acting where they are relayed and transmitted to the cerebral cortex and conscious perception. The pain pathways are separate from those serving other sensations, and even vigorous stimulation of other sensory receptors does not, by itself, cause pain. pain management involves a multdisciplinary approach, often by a specialist team. See also endorphins. transcutaneous electromagnetic nerve stimulation (TENS) . unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or described in terms of, actual or potential tissue damage, due to a complex interaction of sensory, emotional and behavioural factors pain may be acute or chronic, somatic, visceral or neurogenic it characterizes inflammation phantom-limb pain subjective pain or paraesthesia experienced within an amputated limb referred pain pain perceived as originating from a specific body area although it is remote from the point of pain origin, e. g. heel pain due to S1 nerve lesion n unpleasant emotional or physical sensation, often associated with potential or actual tissue damage and classified as acute, chronic, or cancer-related. See also cancer-related pain . Variably unpleasant sensation associated with tissue damage and mediated by specific nerve fibers to brain where its conscious appreciation is modified. L. poena, a fine, a penalty n an unpleasant sensation created by a noxious stimulus mediated along specific nerve pathways to the central nervous system, where it is interpreted. The sensation of pain is a protective mechanism that warns of danger without giving too much information about the specific nature of the danger. It initiates nociceptive reflexes. pain and suffering , n an element in a claim for damages in a liability lawsuit. It requests compensation to an individual for mental and physical pain and discomfort as a result of an injury. n an evaluation of the reported pain and the factors that alleviate or exacerbate a patients pain used as an aid in the diagnosis and the treatment of disease and trauma. n pain that occurs in the chest region because of disorders of the heart (e. g. angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, or pericarditis), pulmonary artery (pulmonary embolism or hypertension), lungs (pleuritis), esophagus (x201Cheartburnx201D), abdominal organs (aerophagia, biliary tract disease, splenic infarction, or gaseous distention in the splenic flexure), or the chest wall (neoplasia, costochondral strains, trauma, hyperventilation, or muscular tension). n a multidisciplinary association of health care professionals devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of patients with acute and chronic pain. n dull, aching, or boring pain originating in muscles, tendons, and joints. It is poorly localized and tends to radiate. pain dysfunction syndrome , n in dentistry, a phrase used to describe a condition in patients who appear to have a psychophysiologic basis for stress overload on the temporomandibular joint. The preferred term is mandibular stress syndrome . n the network that communicates unpleasant sensations and the perceptions of noxious stimuli throughout the body in association with both physical disease and trauma involving tissue damage. pain, nerve ending , n a receptor nerve ending that is relatively primitive and ends in an undifferentiated arborization. The nerve ending for the sensation of pain is a protective mechanism that warns of danger without giving too much information about the specific nature of the danger. The danger stimuli give rise to nociceptive reflexes, or defensive, protective, or withdrawal movements. The nociceptive reflexes supersede other, less urgent, reflexes that are thus inhibited. pain, projected pathologic , n pain erroneously perceived to arise in a peripheral region because of a stimulus from end-organs supplying the region (e. g. sciatic pain). Actually the stimulus occurred somewhere along the pain pathway from the nerve to the cortex. n the individuals manifestation of the unpleasant sensation. n pain caused by an agent in one area but manifested in another (e. g. pain caused by caries in the maxillary third molar may be referred to the mandible, so the source of pain appears to be in the mandible). n an agent that has the potential to induce pain, whether through chemical, mechanical, or thermal means. pain, tactile stimuli , n any of a number of physical sources that may aggravate dentin hypersensitivity, such as dental instruments, toothbrush bristles, ill-fitting oral prostheses, and various personal oral habits a patient may have. pain, thermal stimuli , n dentin hypersensitivity related to abrupt changes in temperature of teeth as a result of contact with very cold or very hot foods and liquids, rapid intake of air through the oral cavity, and during professional oral hygiene procedures requiring rapid drying of teeth. n the point at which a stimulus causes pain. It varies widely among individuals. n the maximum pain level an individual is able to withstand. a feeling of distress, suffering or agony, caused by stimulation of specialized nerve endings. Its purpose is chiefly protective it acts as a warning that tissues are being damaged and induces the sufferer to remove or withdraw from the source. All receptors for pain stimuli are free nerve endings of groups of myelinated or unmyelinated neural fibers abundantly distributed in the superficial layers of the skin and in certain deeper tissues such as the periosteum, surfaces of the joints, arterial walls, and the falx and tentorium of the cranial cavity. The distribution of pain receptors in the gastrointestinal mucosa apparently is similar to that in the skin thus, the mucosa is quite sensitive to irritation and other painful stimuli. Although the parenchyma of the liver and the alveoli of the lungs are almost entirely insensitive to pain, the liver as an organ and the bile ducts are extremely sensitive, as are the bronchi, ureters, parietal pleura and peritoneum. Some pain receptors are selective in their response to stimuli, but most are sensitive to more than one of the following types of excitation: (1) mechanical stress of trauma (2) extremes of heat and cold and (3) chemical substances, such as histamine, potassium ions, acids, prostaglandins, bradykinin and acetylcholine. The conscious perception of pain probably takes place in the thalamus and lower centers interpretation of the quality of pain is probably the role of the cerebral cortex. There are some naturally occurring internal systems in the body that are known to control pain but none of them has been completely verified. One of the best known is the gate control system in which it is thought that pain impulses are mediated in the substantia gelatinosa of the spinal cord. pain occurring in the area between the thorax and pelvis. Manifestations vary between species. Identifiable syndromes include: (1) horsex2014pawing, flank watching, rolling, straddling as though to urinate, lying on the back (2) cattlex2014may depress back and paddle with hindfeet but mostly arched back, grunting, immobility (3) dogs and catsx2014arched back, grunting, depression, reluctance to move. Sometimes there is elevation of the hindquarters, with the chest and forelegs on the ground (the so-called praying dog attitude). Beagle pain syndrome see beagle pain syndrome. pathology in one area can affect the nerve supply to a distant area in which pain is experienced. free nerve endings of tufts of fine points or buttons. pain felt in an area distant from the site of pathology but not mediated through a common innervation. There is no evidence that referred pain occurs in animals but it seems likely on anatomical grounds. the lowest level at which a stimulus can be applied and cause perceptible pain. the level of stimulation at which pain becomes intolerable. Patient discussion about pain Q. Pulling pain in anus. Dear friends, I am 32. I feel a Pulling pain in anus sometimes while i finish passing stool and some times when i sit for long time. No bleeding so far. Is it a symptoms of piles If so what can be done to cure it without going to doctor or operation. Bitte hilf mir. This pain makes me to feel that i am very old. A. horsechestnut is supposed to help. here is some info about it: nccam. nih. govhealthhorsechestnutindex. htmuses but i wouldnt get my hopes high. Q. Polio Syndrome pain One of my aunt is taking Neurontin for Post Polio Syndrome pain in her left leg and arm. she did not realize that she had so much pain and that it was keeping her from doing so many things. Is Neurontin recomended for this treatment and how does it help Will she have problems with Neurontin if she take it long term Neurontin is greatly helping the pain but not the fatique in these limbs. Should it help the fatigue A. Neurontin is being given as medication for nerve pain now also. I take 800 mg a day and it was started for back pain and it is also being used in some fibro patients I am learning( i also have fibromyalgia) It didnt cause me a lot of drowsness but amount of medication and medications affect people differently so each person can be different. But with the fatigue fibromyalgia causes maybe I just cant tell the difference bc before I started it I was tried all the time and that is not any worse. But if your Aunt and yourself feel uncomfortable with this treatment I would suggest a second opinion. Good Luck to your Aunt Q. Why do they think that the pain is all in my head Is there any chance which may wrongfully lead doctor to conclude that our symptoms are of a psychological nature Why do they think that the pain is all in my head A. It may happen very rarely and if he is new to his profession. It doesnt mean that all those are new to their profession does these mistakes. Doctors cannot quotseequot and may not understand the sources of your pain or fatigue. However, what they do observe is your anxiety and frustration with having to deal with these symptoms around-the-clock, which may wrongfully lead them to conclude that your symptoms are of a psychological nature. Also, the old school of thought regarding pain is that it is produced by tissue injury, and there is no obvious source of tissue injury in patients with fibromyalgia. Regardless, if your doctor does not believe that your symptoms are real, you owe it to yourself to find another doctor who believes in you and will work with you to help reduce your symptoms. Link to this page: As when ALCIDES from OEALIA Crownd With conquest, felt th envenomd robe, and tore Through pain up by the roots THESSALIAN Pines, And LICHAS from the top of OETA threw Into th EUBOIC Sea. The little blistering voices of pain that had called out from his scalp were, he thought, definite in their expression of danger. It was necessary that pain should be put forward as a mode of self - realisation. After growing confused from pain while being carried into the hut he again regained consciousness, and while drinking tea once more recalled all that had happened to him, and above all vividly remembered the moment at the ambulance station when, at the sight of the sufferings of a man he disliked, those new thoughts had come to him which promised him happiness. If you have never swallowed it, the pill can not have given you a pain . After all her pains her heroic struggle for freedom had failed. It was a pandemonium of pain. for, their parched throats softened by the water, they were again able to yelp and cry out loudly all their hurt and woe. She had so indescribably touched and interested me, stranger as I was, that the sudden cessation of her faint, sweet tones affected me almost with a sense of pain . She lay so several hours for the drowse deepened into a heavy sleep, and Uncle Alec, still at his post, saw with growing anxiety that a feverish colour began to burn in her cheeks, that her breathing was quick and uneven, and now and then she gave a little moan, as if in pain . When this shower of arrows was over, I fell a-groaning with grief and pain. and then striving again to get loose, they discharged another volley larger than the first, and some of them attempted with spears to stick me in the sides, but, by good luck, I had on a buff jerkin, which they could not pierce. Its burning, searing pain to love her and leave her--but not to have loved her is unthinkable. Or that again which most nearly approaches to the condition of the individual--as in the body, when but a finger of one of us is hurt, the whole frame, drawn towards the soul as a center and forming one kingdom under the ruling power therein, feels the hurt and sympathizes all together with the part affected, and we say that the man has a pain in his finger and the same expression is used about any other part of the body, which has a sensation of pain at suffering or of pleasure at the alleviation of suffering. academic anthropology - careers that involve the teaching of anthropology at colleges and universities. Academic anthropologists do research, but the objective is more for the contribution to general knowledge. acculturation - culture change resulting from contact between cultures. A process of external culture change. adaptation - patterns of behavior which enable a culture to cope with its surroundings. adjudication - mediation with the ultimate decision being made by an unbiased third party. affinal - members of ones kindred who are related through a marital linkage. age category - a culturally defined category based on age used to define the life cycle, such as infant, youth, teenager, young adult, adult, elderly. age grade - a social category or status based on an age range. age set - a social group defined by those who share the same age status and are a recognizable group. aggression - acts or threats designed to cause injury. altiplano - a high plateau or plain. ambilineal - a corporate kin group that traces relationships through either the female or male lines. Also called cognatic descent. American Anthropological Association (AAA) - the major professional association for anthropologists in the United States. animatism - belief in an impersonal and divisible supernatural force or forces, which reside in living or unliving things. animism - a belief that natural phenomena such as rocks, trees, thunder, or celestial bodies have life or divinity. anthropocentric - the idea that humans are the most important beings in the universe. anthropological linguistics - the branch of anthropology that studies human language. Linguistic anthropology is mainly concerned with the technical analysis of language. anthropology - the study of humanity divisions are physical anthropology, archaeology, ethnology, and anthropological linguistics. apartheid - racial, political, and economic segregation of non-European peoples. applied anthropology - using the knowledge of anthropology to address human real-world problems. archaeology - study of material culture. art - human endeavor thought to be aesthetic and have meaning beyond simple description. Includes music, dance, sculpture, painting, drawing, stitchery, weaving, poetry, writing, woodworking, etc. A medium of expression where the individual and culture come together. assimilation - when one ethnic group absorbs another, so that the cultural traits of the assimilated group become indistinguishable. attitudes - data that describe how people think, believe, and feel. autoethnography - an ethnographic description written by a member of the culture. avunculocal - residence after marriage is with or near the mothers brother of the husband. balanced reciprocity - is a direct exchange where the two parties involved seek to arrive at a mutually acceptable price or exchange for goods or services. band - a small group of related people, who are primarily organized through family bonds. Foraging typifies the subsistence technology. A respected and older person may be looked to for leadership, but the person has no formalized authority. big-man - a form of leadership in tribes where the leader achieves power and influence based on ability. bilineal - descent in which the individual figures kinship through both the fathers and mothers descent group. bilingual education - teaching a second language by relying heavily on the native language of the speaker. The theory is that maintaining a strong sense of ones one culture and language is necessary to acquire another language and culture. bilocal - residence after marriage is with either the wifes or husbands relatives. biodiversity - usually considered at the genetic, species, and ecossytem levels. Includes the measure of the number and frequency in an assemblage. bis - a ceremony for purging malevolent deceased spirits. Includes the carving of elaborate poles to commemorate deceased persons. brideprice - an economic exchange by the grooms family to compensate the brides family upon marriage. bureaucracy - government based on a specialized set of offices usually hierarchically organized. cannibalism - consuming human flesh. This is reported to occur in the context of warfare, as part of a funeral rite or, rarely, in cases of extreme stress. captial - a stock whose value is in its ability to produce a flow of benefits. Capital can include renewable and non renewable natural and human made assets, as well as intellectual, social, and cultural assets (see capital discussion) cargo - from the Spanish verb cargar which means to carry and to be in charge of. cargo cult - do not confuse cargo system with cargo cult which is a revitalization movement characterized by the belief that ancestral spirits will bring wanted goods (cargo) and throw off oppressive customs and colonizers. cargo system - a set of community offices and obligations a person goes through to achieve recognition and status. cassowary - a large bird, significant in Mendi ritual. caste system - the ranking of members in a society by occupational status and degree of purity or pollution as determined by their birth. charismatic - the ability to lead and influence large numbers of people. chiefdom - political organization is typically inherited through kinship lines. A ranked society in which a few leaders make decisions for the group. clan - a noncorporate descent group in which genealogical links to a common ancestor are assumed but are not actually known. class stratification - where members of a society are ranked from higher to lower based on wealth, prestige, position, or education. closed system - each sound is mutually exclusive and cant be combined with others to make a new meaning. coca leaves - derived from a shrub and resembles tea leaves. They contain alkaloids including cocaine and are used medicinally and in magic by the Aymara. coevolution - the joint evolution of two or more systems that interact with each other. cognatic descent - tracing descent through both the females and males in ones lineage. colonialism - forced change in which one culture, society, or nation dominates another. co-management - also cooperative management, tries to achieve more effective and equitable systems of resource management. In cooperative management, representatives of user groups, the scientific community, and government agencies share knowledge, power, and responsibility. common interest groups - associations that are formally recognized with a name and social organization, but are not based on age, kinship, marriage, or territory. comparative methods - analyzing data about cultures to learn and explain patterns of similarity and difference. compasino - an agricultural worker. concept - relates facts to propositions and theories. concepts often become variables, but concept is more encompassing. Status and role are concepts. Ranking statuses according to social classes, e. g. lower, middle, and upper, is a variable. consanguineal - members of ones kindred who are related by blood line. conspicuous consumption - the display of material items for the purpose of impressing others. core-periphery - the structural relation between centralized core, often an urban area, and communities on the periphery, usually tribal or rural, resource-based communities. core values - attitudes and beliefs thought to uniquely pattern a culture. corporate descent group - a descent group that owns or controls property. cosmology - ideas about the universe as an ordered system and the place of humans in the universe. Creole - a person of mixed Spanish and Black African or French and Black African ancestry. crimes - violations against the state. cross-cousin - children of the opposite-sexed siblings of ones parents, e. g. mothers brothers and fathers sisters children. cultural anthropology - study of cultural variation and similarities. Includes ethnology and anthropological linguistics. May also include archaeology. cultural construct - the idea that the characteristics people attribute to such social categories as gender, illness, death, status of women, and status of men is culturally defined. cultural ecology - the study of human interaction with ecosystems to determine how nature influences and is influenced by human social organization and culture. cultural knowledge - information, skills, attitudes, conceptions, beliefs, values, and other mental components of culture that people socially learn during enculturation. cultural relativism - understanding the ways of other cultures and not judging these practices according to ones own cultural ways. cultural transmission - how culture is passed on through learning from one generation to another. Also referred to as enculturation or socialization. culture as holistic - if one part of the culture changes, this necessitates change in all other related parts. If Asmat cannibalism is restricted, changes will occur in many other aspects of the culture. culture as an integrated whole - Cultures are systems in which all the parts are related to one another. If one part of the culture changes, this necessitates change in all other related parts. culture - The learned patterns of behavior and thought that help a group adapt to its surroundings. culture of discontent - a level of aspirations that far exceeds the bounds of an individuals local opportunities. Also discussed as the gap between expectations and the ability to meet these expectations. curer - a specialist who heals with herbal preparations and magic learned through apprenticeships. Curers are usually part-time specialists who are paid for their services and are also called shamans. cyclical migration - the annual pattern followed in the production of food. descent group - a kin group whose members are recruited by one of the principles of descent e. g. matrilineal, patrilineal, etc. deviance - to not follow the norms of society. diffusion - the spread of a cultural pattern from one culture to another, and where no directed change agent is apparent. disease - a pathological condition that is cross-culturally defined and recognized. distribution - system of allocating resources in a society. distributive justice - the rules in a culture that specify how the economic productivity of that culture is distributed among the members. It is a statement of values about what should be done. See the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy for more information. divination - obtaining factual knowledge by magical means which have no apparent empirical connection to the information sought. division of labor - the division of tasks in a society between women and men, old and young, ability, knowledge, experience. domestication - when humans intervene in the breeding patterns of plants or animals. dowry - the womans share of her inheritance from the group of her birth, which is taken with her upon marriage. dust bowl - drought in the Midwest which deepened the economic depression of the 1930s. economic development - the institutional changes made to promote economic betterment. It is the social organizational changes made to promote growth in an economy. economic growth - the overall growth in an economy. Gross national product and gross domestic product are the usual measures of economic growth. Because growth can come in many ways, GNP and GDP are not particularly good measures. Wealth, the net gain from economic activity, is better. Further, economic growth could occur from having more people in an economy. If the economic growth occurs more slowly than the population growth, then there can be economic growth, but the average person is less well-off. egalitarian - a society without formalized differences in the access to power, influence, and wealth. ego - the person from whose point of view kinship relations are referenced. emic - views of the world that members of a culture accept as real, meaningful, or appropriate. enculturation - the process of learning ones own culture, also called socialization. endogamy - rules requiring selecting of a marriage partner from within a particular group. equality - a measure of how similar people are to one another. It can be measured quantitatively with such measures as wealth concentration, Gini coefficients, and percentiles. equity - the institutional arrangements to promote equality. Equity is not quantitatively measured it is determined by people agreeing that their institutions are fair. ethics - the principles of conduct governing an individual or group concerns for what is right or wrong, good or bad. etic - views of a culture that are accepted by a group of scientists as a valid description fo the culture. ethnic boundary markers - overt characteristics used to denote ethnic group membership. ethnic identity - a named group identified through their ethnic boundary markers. Ethnic identity can vary with changes in social context. ethnocentrism - judging other cultures by the standards of your own, which you believe to be superior. ethnographic novel - an ethnographic description written as a story that may be about an ethnographers experience or about some event or problem. ethnographic present - a description of a culture as it was prior to contact. ethnography - description of a culture, usually based on the method of participant observation. ethnology - comparative analysis of cultural patterns to explain differences and similarities among societies. evolution - change in the form of a culture. Usually a process of internal cultural change. exogamy - rules requiring selection of a marriage partner from outside a particular group. extended family - a composite family composed of other relatives besides the nuclear families. Extended families can be constructed across generations by including parents or childrens families or extended laterally by including multiple wives or siblings families. extinction - when a culture dies out. Often the people die out too. Some may become peasants or pass into contemporary society. fact - a description of a bit or piece of some domain of inquiry. family - families are universal in cultures, but their definition and dynamics are changing. A very inclusive definition is two or more people who define themselves as a family. Also see extended family, nuclear family, U. S. Census Bureau definitions. fields of anthropology - physical, linguistics, sociocultural, and archaeology. Note that sociocultural anthropology and ethnology are closely related fields of study. fieldwork - living among a group of people for the purpose of learning about their culture. fissioning - a Yanomamo settlement splits due to internal conflict with one group moving away to form a new village. folk art - art produced by people not professionally identified as artists. foragers - getting food by collecting or hunting what is naturally available. The term used to refer to the subsistence patterns of cultures different from our own continually changes as our values change. Initially, these groups were called primitives. This term came to be viewed as too ethnocentric since it emphasized they were less developed than modern cultures. The term hunters and gatherers has been replaced by foragers because of the gender associations with male hunters and female gatherers. Since Kung women produce 85 of the food by volume, is it appropriate to call them a hunting and gathering society funk - an earthy, unsophisticated style and feeling, or the style and feelings of blues. fusion - blending traits from two different cultures to form a new trait. The cargo is a fusion of Mayan and Catholic religious elements. Also called syncretism. genealogy - a family tree or web of kinship relationships traced through parents and children. Also called a kindred. gender - the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a culture considers appropriated for men and women. generalized reciprocity - an exchange where a person gives a good or a service to someone else but does not receive anything back at that time. There is the expectation that in the future should the person receiving the good or service have something that it will be given at a later time. Gini coefficient - a numerical measure of inequality. A Gini coefficient of zero indicates perfect equality. When the Gini coefficient is 1.0, it shows the greatest inequality. The Gini coefficient is obtained by dividing the area between the 45-degree line, showing perfect equality, and the curve showing the percent of wealth held by each percent of wealthholder by the total area under the 45-degree line of perfect equality. global culture - one world culture. The earths inhabitants will lose their cultural diversity and on culture will be experienced by all people. grammar and syntax - the formal structure of a language and the rules for making sentences and phrases. Green Revolution - the development of high-yielding varieties of seed for crops such as wheat and rice in Third World countries and requiring extensive technology for planting, irrigation, fertilizing, spraying, and harvesting. gross domestic product (GDP) - a measure of an economys economic performance. It is the market value of all goods and services produced within the boundaries of a country. gross national product (GNP) - a measure of an economys economic performance. It is the market value of all goods and services produced by the residents of a particular country. It includes the income of those residents earned by corporations owned overseas and from working abroad. guru - a Sanskrit and pan-Indian word denoting a spiritual master or teacher. It implies an initiatory relation between master and disciple. The guru passes on oral tradition and ascetic regimen to the student. hallmarks of humanity - good and evil, imagination, laughter, love. hegemonic - the use of power, usually by those controlling the meta or master narrative against the other histogram - a graph showing the distribution of wealth. It plots levels of wealth from low to high on the x-axis and the number of individuals or households in each wealth category along the y-axis. historia - an atlas of eternity, the presentation of history holistic - no dimension of culture can be understood in isolation, cultures are integrated wholes. horticulture - an agricultural technology distinguished by the use of hand tools to grow domesticated plants. Does not use draft animals, irrigation, or specially prepared fertilizers. humanism - concern for human welfare, dignity and values. ideal - what people think the situation should be. illness - a malady that is culturally defined. imperialism - economic control gained through the corporate organization of nation states. industrial society - a society integrated by a complex network of occupational specialties supporting the manufacture of material goods. informal economy - the economy common to shanytowns. slums where goods and services sold or bartered are unregulated by formal institutions. information society - a society integrated by complex communication networks that rapidly develop and exchange information. information age - a form of culture where electronics joins members of diverse cultural backgrounds together. Greater quantities of information than ever before are available to individuals, yet certainty about the way systems operate is less and more subject to question. innovation - introducing an object as if it were new. institutions - the patterns of living and social organizations that carry out the values and goals of a society. intensive agriculture - use of irrigation, draft animals, terracing, natural fertilizers, selective breeding, mechanization, etc. to grow more food. interdisciplinary - two or more specialists having different disciplinary backgrounds working jointly and continuously to interlink their analyses (see multidisciplinary ). invention - a unique object produced through the process of imagination and experience. isolative integration - where a culture tries to prevent another culture from changing its ways and selectively takes from the dominant culture. kayasa - competitive display for the purpose of settling disputes it occurs in the context of ceremonial exchange. key informants - a few individuals selected on the basis of criteria such as knowledge, compatibility, age, experience, or reputation who provide information about their culture. kindred - people related to one another by blood, marriage, and adoption. kinesics - body, facial, hand, and arm movements that are used to communicate. kinship chart - the diagram of kinship relations using symbols to indicate males, females, marriages, divorces, siblings, descent, and deceased relatives. Also called a kindred diagram. Koran - book of teachings for the religion of Islam. Also spelled Quran. Kula - a set of trade relations among Trobriand men involving the giving away of shell artifacts with the objective of displaying prestige and reinforcing alliances. law - the means by which members of a group regulate their conduct and deal with breaches of rules and incompatible interests. legitimacy - the right to hold and use power, usually based on the consent of the governed. leveling device - a cultural mechanism which reduces wealth differentials between individuals often by inducing the wealthy to sponsor feasts or to destroy or give away surplus in return for increased prestige. life cycle - the set of states a person goes through from birth to death. lineage - a corporate descent group whose members can trace their genealogical links to a known common ancestor. linguistic anthropology - study of how language is used in various social contexts. Anthropological linguistics focuses more on the interplay of language and culture. Lorenz Curve - a graph showing the degree of inequality. The cumulative percent of wealthholders is on the x-axis. The cumulative percent of wealth held is on the y-axis. Perfect equality is the 45-degree line from the origin to 100. This line means that every person has the same amount of wealth. Since 10, 20 and even 50 of some populations have no wealth, a Lorenz curve typically bows below the line of perfect equality. The more it bows below the line, the more inequality is indicated. magic - practices designed to gain control over the supernatural. Magic and religion are separated in several ways in anthropology. For some anthropologists magic tries to gain control over the supernatural. Others see magic as being individual, while religion is a group phenomena that creates lasting social bonds. Malinowski saw magic as a means to an end, while religion was the end in itself. Other anthropologists find separating magic and religion very difficult. mandala - artistic representation of the cosmos, a focus for meditation. manioc, also called cassava - plants grown in the tropics for their starchy, edible rootstock, commonly found as a dietary staple among gardening peoples. Mardi Gras - the day before Ash Wednesday which begins Lent also called Shrove Tuesday. markets - systems that exchange goods and services using all-purpose money as a standard measure of relative value. Early market systems are characterized by market places or bazaars which are often cyclical, moving among a fixed set of localities, each having its specific market days. matriarchy - where a mother figure and women have authority. matrilineal - descent traced exclusively through the female line. matrilocal - residence after marriage in association with the wifes mothers relatives. mayordomo - a person who takes on a full year of religious and administrative duty caring for the village saints, administrative matters, and the fiesta schedule. mean wealth - the average. It is the sum of all the wealth divided by the number of wealthholders. Since wealth is unequally distributed, the mean is not a good indicator of what is typical for a population. median wealth - the middle of a distribution. It is a better indicator of what is typical for the population because the median is the place in a histogram where there are an equal number of people having more wealth and an equal number having less. mediation - dispute settlement through negotiation assisted by an unbiased third party. meditation - to contemplate or reflect in a state of relaxed focus. megalopolis - a very large city or a thickly populated region encompassing one or more large cities. Melanesia - one of the three principle divisions of Oceania it includes the islands of the Pacific, Northeast of Australia including New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and Fiji. The Melanesian land divers were from the village of Bunlap on Pentecost Island of Vanuatu which under colonial control was called the New Hebrides. mestizos - persons of mixed Spanish and Indian cultural background. metaphor - application of a word or phrase to an object or concept in order to suggest a comparison. Micronesia - the small islands of western Oceania. modal personality - the personality characteristic held by the most people in the group. modernization - the process by which cultures are forced to accept traits from outside. moiety - division of a society into two halves based on descent. monastery - an establishment for those under religious vows. The seat of government for the Tibetan state. monogamy - marriage in which an individual has one spouse. monte - an uncultivated area of dense woods or forest. morpheme - the smallest unit in a language that carries a grammatically distinct meaning. morphology - the study of meaningful units of sound in a language. multiculturalism - stressing the importance of different cultures, races, and ethnicities. multidisciplinary - researchers from different disciplines working independently on related problems (see interdisciplinary. mucrology - the art of etching or painting with a pointed tip of a feathery leaf, etc. myth - a common or shared historical experience national character - studies based on the assumption that collectively members of a society have a distinctive set of psychological qualities. Has been replaced by the concept of core values. nature-nurture - contrasting the biological verses cultural or environmental basis for behavior. negative reciprocity - when one person in an exchanges tries to get something for nothing or for less than its recognized worth. negotiation - the use of direct argument and compromise by the parties to a dispute to arrive at a mutually satisfactory agreement. neolocal - residence in which the married couples household has no connection with either the husbands or wifes family. New World - pertaining to the areas of the world most recently discovered by Europeans e. g. North and South America. nirvana - the state of peace and happiness in achieving freedom from the endless cycles of reincarnation. A state of freedom from pain, worry, and the external world. nuclear family - a woman andor husband and dependent children. noblesse oblige - the obligation of honorable, generous, and responsible behavior associated with high social rank or birth. nodes - the individuals in a persons social network. non-academic anthropology - careers where anthropology is used to solve problems and improve the human condition. noseibal - a lost ball hit outside the field of play, a hit for six runs. Old World - pertaining to areas of the world having the longest period of documented human habitation: e. g. Europe, Asia, and Africa. oligarchy - the ruling class. Usually a small group of wealthy individuals. one-world culture - a popular belief that the future will bring development of a single homogeneous world culture through links created by modern communication, transportation, and trade. open system - with this system new meanings can be expressed without inventing new sounds. origin story - description of how the culture came into being. pacification - extending the authority of national government over formerly autonomous people whether by force or persuasion. panchayat - a council of elders representing a village or caste. paralanguage - the use of accent, cadence, pitch, and tone to convey meaning. parallel-cousin - children of the same-sexed siblings of ones parents, e. g. mothers sisters and fathers brothers children. paramount chief - the highest ranking social office in a chiefdom. participant observation - living in a culture that is not your own while also keeping a detailed record of your observations and interviews. pasado - a person greatly respected because he has served in positions at all four cargo levels. pastoralist - subsistence gained by tending and breeding animals. patriarchy - where a father figure and males have authority. patrilineal - tracing kinship, inheritance, power through the male line. patrilocal - residence after marriage in association with the husbands fathers relatives. peasants - people who produce for their own subsistence in preindustrial and industrializing state societies--usually rural, lower class, primary producers such as farmers, artisans, or fishermen. They are involved in market relations with urban centers, to which they are also bound politically and administratively. peer group - a subgroup of a society in which membership is determined by similar age, sharing the same social status, etc. perceived - what people think the situation actually is. personality - personal beliefs, expectations, desires, values, and behaviors that derive from the interaction between culture and the individual. Personality is the behaviors and techniques for solving problems that are used by an individual. Personality is to the individual as culture is to the group. personalness - refers to how well a person knows the other with whom an exchange is being made. Personal means that the other is well known, where as impersonal reflects lack of knowledge about the other. See reciprocity. phoneme - the smallest unit of sound that does not alter the meaning of words in which it occurs. phonetics - study of the production, transmission, and reception of sounds in speech. phonology - the study of sound patterns in language. physical anthropology - study of biological origins and physical variations among human populations. pilgrims - those who travel to a shrine or holy place as devotees. plurality - when a person wins an election by having the most votes, as opposed to a majority where a person gets more than half of the votes. political ecology - a theoretical focus that attempts to understand distributional factors in human interaction with the environment. polyandry - a woman has more than one husband. polygamy - an individual who has more than one spouse. polygyny - a man has more than one wife. Polynesia - islands in Oceania within the triangle whose corners are the Hawaiian Islands, Easter Island, and New Zealand. postmodern - a view that social and cultural reality, as well as social science itself, is a human construction. potlatch - a ceremony used to display wealth and increase status. power - the ability to influence the actions of others. production - making goods available proposition - makes a claim about some domain of inquiry. Also called hypotheses. The higher ones class status, the greater ones power is a proposition. protestant work ethic - a value system that stresses the moral value of work, self-discipline, and individual responsibility as the means to improving ones economic well-being. qualitative methods - rich descriptions of cultural situations obtained from interviewing, participant observation, and collection of oral and textual materials. Ethnographies are reports from qualitative research. quantitative methods - numerical tabulations and statistical comparisons made possible by systematic surveys, observations, or analysis of records. Data are used to test hypotheses and identify the strength of patterns observed using qualitative methods. rap - a type of rhythmic, rhyming expression spontaneously composed. real - what is known to actually be so . reciprocity - a mutual or cooperative interchange of favors or privileges, especially the exchange of rights or privileges of trade between individuals or groups as in the transfer of goods or services between two or more individuals or groups. Also see balanced, generalized, and negative reciprocity. redistribution - a mechanism whereby a politically or economically powerful individual (or group) collects goods and services from the members of society and reallocates them among the societys members. relations - the relationships between individuals in a social network. religion - a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power. revitalization movement - religiously based social movement with the purpose of reforming society. ritual - the visible control of abstract thoughts. Tries to control unpredictable events and the supernatural. Tries to know the unknowable and change the unchangeable. role - the relation one has with another node in a social network. A loving and affective relationship is the role of being a spouse. See status. sacred - things and actions set apart as religious or spiritual which are entitled to reverence. science - systematically acquired knowledge that is verifiable. seasonal round - the annual pattern followed in the production of food. secular - things not regarded as religious or spiritual. serial monogamy - a pattern of divorce and monogamous remarriage. sex - the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women. sex role division of labor - the division of subsistence tasks between women and men. shaman - a religious specialist who uses supernatural power in curing. Also called curer or cuerandero. shantytown - neighborhoods where poor migrants to cities live. Also called slum, farela, township. sister exchange - a shorthand label for a marriage system in which men of different descent groups exchange women who are sometimes their own sisters or daughters and sometimes parallel cousins or the daughters of parallel cousins. slash and burn - cultivation with recurrent clearing and burning of vegetation and planting in the burnt fields. Fallow periods for each plot last longer than periods of cultivation. It is sometimes referred to as swidden (or shifting) cultivation. social class - people having the same rank in a system that differentiates people from high to low. social construction - reality that is constructed uniquely by each person. social control - the rules, habits, and customs by which a society tries to maintain order. social network - the relationships an individual has with family, friends, co-workers, neighbors, and people in groups to which the person belongs, e. g. church, recreation, political, social, and other groups. See also family, kinship, caste, class. social stratification - arranging the members of a society into a pattern of superior and inferior ranks. socialization - the process by which culture is learned also called enculturation. During socialization individuals internalize a cultures social controls, along with values and norms about right and wrong. sociobiology - study of human behavior based on the assumption that human behavior is biologically based. sociolinguistics - study of the relationship between language and social factors such as class, ethnicity, age and sex. sorcery - using power obtained from evil spirits. space industrialization - the development of important new manufacturing activities in the environment of outer space. specialization - where individuals become experts in producing certain goods or services that are then exchanged. spirit cult - a group of adherents to a set of religious beliefs and ritual in which ghosts are believed to interfere in the affairs of the living. state - a culture that has a formal political organization with a central bureaucracy with the authority to employ legalized force. status - the position one has in a social network. The name of a position given to a node. Husband and wife are statuses. See role. subsistence farmers - when there is very little surplus and nearly all that is produced goes to supporting the farm household. subsistence - the way by which a culture obtains its food. supernatural - characteristics of the reality beyond the senses. survival of the fittest - a nineteenth century concept that the strongest survive. Often called Social Darwinism. Survival of the fittest misrepresents the process of natural selection. The mechanism of natural selection is reproductive fitness, those who produce offspring. Social Darwinism refers to being the most powerful, which is not the mechanism for natural selection. sustainable - using natural and human resources in a way that does not jeopardize the opportunities of future generations. symbols - physical objects, colors, sounds, movements, scents which convey information through an arbitrary or culturally assigned meaning. syncretism - blending traits from two different cultures to form a new trait. Also called fusion. tapioca - a cassava plant, the scraping of which is interpreted as a sexual metaphor by Trobrianders. terminology systems - the terminology used to refer to cousins. Two-thirds of all world cultures can be classified according to six kinship systems--Hawaiian, Eskimo, Crow, Omaha, Iroquois, Sudanese. The text defines these systems. theocracy - a form of state political organization in which the government is based on religious offices. theory - several related propositions that explain some domain of inquiry. Also called a school or paradigm. Third World - countries with economies largely based on agriculture and characterized by low standards of living, high rates of population growth, and general economic and technological dependence upon wealthier industrial nations. A very ethnocentric way of referring to other cultures because it ranks cultures below those of the First World like Europe, Japan, Canada, and the United States. topophilia - all emotional connections with a place, having a strong sense of place. torts - violations against an individual. tribe - a group that centers around kinship units and common-interest groups that cross-cut kindred boundaries. Horticulture typifies the subsistence technology. People who attain prestige according to cultural standards may be seen as leaders. The big-man institution is quite common in tribes. trope - metaphor, often ironic, using words other than dialogue in their literal sense urbanization - the process by which more and more people come to live in cities. utility - the satisfaction people get from something. Typically, this satisfaction is translated into a monetary willingness to pay for the good or service. The monetary units then enable comparing the relative satisfaction or value of goods or services. values - what people think is right and wrong, good and bad, desirable and undesirable. warfare - organized, armed conflict between groups, each of which is motivated by a common purpose. wealth - the net gain in material well-being from economic activity. Wealth is measured according to the items of value in a given culture. wealth concentration measure - measures inequality. Percentages, Gini coefficient, ranges are all measures of wealth concentration. wealth distribution - a plot of the wealth held by all the members of a community. Wealth distribution is concerned with the whole population of people. world view - the beliefs about the limits and workings of the world shared by the members of a society and represented in their myths, lore, ceremonies, social conduct, and general values. yam - the edible, starchy, tuberous roots of several related species of plants used as a staple food in tropical areas. Updated:Wednesday, 26-Dec-2012 18:00:08 PST